Tuesday, December 4, 2007 

Modern UV-VIS Spectroscopy: A Decade of Fiber-Optic CCD Array Spectrophotometers

Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy continues to be one of the core disciplines practiced in nearly every analytical laboratory. Since its inception by Cary and Beckman in the 1940s, UV-VIS spectroscopy has revolutionized the field of molecular spectroscopy. Over the decades, numerous improvements have been made with respect to optical designs, including dual-beam optics, variable slit resolution, noise suppression, and integrated electronics.

The proliferation of personal computers in the 1980s resulted in significant improvements in data acquisition and instrument control. Streamlined instrument operation was facilitated through the use of dedicated software applications and the introduction of the user-friendly Windows operating systems (Microsoft, Redmond, WA). Perhaps the most radical instrument design change that took place in the 1980s was the introduction of the diode array spectrophotometer by Hewlett-Packard, now Agilent Technologies (Palo Alto, CA). In contrast to traditional scanning monochromators that utilize a single photomultiplier tube, this novel spectrograph consisted of an array of photodiodes that permitted simultaneous, full-spectrum data acquisition in seconds. It was an instant hit among users.

The 1990s introduced two significant design additions in the form of charge-coupled device (CCD) array detectors and fiber-optic sampling devices. The typical CCD exhibits very high quantum efficiency and has readout noise that is 100 times lower than comparable photodiode arrays, permitting more efficient utilization of light and an improved signal-to-noise ratio. The use of fiber optics allowed the overall optical footprint to be more compact and thus reduced instrument size. In addition, fiber-optic sampling accessories could be configured for use as probes, making possible numerous, untypical spectroscopic applications such as colorimetry, radiometry, and spectroscopy of solid surfaces.

A quick glance at todays instrumentation market indicates the popularity of the CCD as the detector of choice. CCD array systems now dominate almost every product line, including nearly all inductively coupled plasma (ICP) spectrometers (atomic spectroscopy) and IR-Raman (molecular spectroscopy) systems sold. These charge-transfer devices (CTD) are composed of CCD, charge injection devices (CID), and CMOS array systems. The overwhelming benefits of either array type are simultaneous, multi-wavelength data acquisition resulting in the fastest, most versatile instruments available. Additionally, CTD array systems have few, if any, moving parts and offer better stability than single-element, vacuum tube detectors such as photomultiplier tubes (PMTs).

Detector options

The optical design and footprint of CCD array spectrophotometers differ considerably from typical scanning spectrophotometers. The larger footprint required for scanning spectrophotometers can be attributed to the increased number of optical surfaces necessary for dispersion and isolation of the desired wavelength prior to transmission through a given sample. In addition, numerous moving parts are necessary for performing scanning functions, slit selection, and beam splitting. In contrast, CCD array spectrophotometers transmit all wavelengths through the sample prior to wavelength isolation. The use of a fixed grating position results in a linear spectrum that is ideally suited for linear CCD arrays and eliminates moving parts within the spectrograph. Fewer moving parts result in improved reliability, thus minimizing instrument maintenance costs and the necessity for service.

Photodiode arrays typically utilize linear arrays consisting of 512 or 1024 photosensitive diodes. In comparison, the most common linear array CCD format currently used is a 2,048-pixel CCD. High-sensitivity, low-noise CCDs having either 2,048 or 3,648 pixels are used in high-performance spectrophotometers offered by S.I. Photonics (Tucson, AZ).

The resulting resolution of an array spectrophotometer is determined by the slit width, dispersion, and pixel binning. Because wavelength dispersion does not incorporate an exit slit, order-sorting filters are essential for linear CCD array UV-VIS spectrophotometers. Improved long-term precision and wavelength accuracy are achieved in CCD array systems by precise temperature control of the spectrograph optics. Fewer optical components result in a smaller spectrograph that can be temperature-stabilized to minimize expansion and contraction of optical components due to changes in ambient temperatures. Typical scanning instruments often have a relatively large optical footprint and do not lend themselves to affordable temperature control of optical components.

Light Sources

Typical light sources utilized in UV-VIS spectroscopy include a quartz tungsten lamp for visible wavelengths from 350 to 1000 nm, while deuterium lamps are used for UV wavelengths below 350 nm. Xenon lamps have been used in less expensive systems but do not offer the light throughput, stability, or flexibility of dedicated deuterium and tungsten sources. For the highest performance when choosing an instrument, regardless of scanning or CCD array types, users should look for units that have separate, dedicated light sources.

Fiber Optics

When fiber-optic capable systems were first introduced, many critics cited solarization of the optical fibers and photo-oxidation of samples as potential weaknesses of array spectrographs. These two myths were quickly dismissed since solarization-resistant fibers are typically used and sample analysis times are too short for photo-oxidation to occur.

In addition, these effects are virtually eliminated in high-quality optical designs incorporating optical shutters. The optical shutters used in the 400 Series spectrophotometers (S.I. Photonics) precisely control the exposure of light to the fiber-optic devices down to fractions of a second. As a result, the solarization that would normally occur during the first 10 hr of use would require the performance of more than 35,000 analyses before effects are realized. If the optical shutter happens to be positioned prior to sample illumination, photo-oxidation is eliminated entirely.

Sampling Options

The sheer number of applications for the modern UV-VIS system is limitless. New uses are routinely discovered and implemented as a result of the versatility offered by the numerous fiber-optic sampling accessories. For example, traditional UV-VIS spectroscopy was limited to liquid matrices utilizing the standard 1-cm cuvettes. The flexible fiber-optic systems available today have introduced UV-VIS spectroscopy to an entire generation of new users. Dip probes now account for more than half of the units sold rather than traditional cuvettes. Fiber-optic reflectance probes allow for the sampling of solid surfaces and powders as well as aqueous matrices. When true diffuse reflectance is needed, integrating spheres are readily accommodated. Todays systems serve users in scientific research, academic teaching, corporate and industrial QA/QC, pharmaceuticals, radiometry, colorimetry, criminal investigations, and agricultural applications.

Software

CCD array spectrophotometers have the inherent benefit of software flexibility. Because the entire spectrum is made available instantly and stored in memory, these data can be evaluated repeatedly in a number of fashions. Peak location, quantitation, multiple spectrum overlay, and timed acquisition are typical features included.

Timed Acquisition

Timed acquisition and kinetics analysis are just two of the applications in which CCD spectrophotometers overwhelmingly outperform scanning systems. Simultaneous, full-spectrum data acquisition offers significant advantages over monochromatic systems, which severely limit data acquisition. Typical CCD spectrophotometers have integrated software capable of displaying spectra as a function of time. As a result, users can choose to view the entire wavelength region over time or simply select discrete wavelengths for temporal studies. These features are extremely valuable for chromatographic applications and fraction collection. Full-spectrum acquisition not only allows for confirmation of the parent compounds, but contaminating artifacts are also identified in real time. These data can then be presented as a three-dimensional plot, providing a powerful tool for drug and metabolite screening and other applications. Kinetics and dissolution testing are also widely used timed acquisition features.

Quantitative Analysis
A significant advantage of CCD array systems over conventional scanning systems is that an array system allows for simultaneous background correction at user-selectable locations. Background correction is not available with single-channel scanning systems, which can only monitor one wavelength at a time. In addition, quantitative analysis can be performed at multiple wavelengths simultaneously as well.

Conclusion
The CCD array spectrophotometer of today represents the technological maturation of traditional UV-VIS spectroscopy. These systems are more versatile, reliable, and compact than ever before. In addition, the flexibility afforded through the use of fiber optics and CCD detection has introduced UV-VIS spectroscopy to a new generation of users and applications. New systems incorporating Peltier-cooled CCDs for improved fluorescence applications and dual-beam designs are sure to follow.

Visit S.I. Photonics, Inc. website at http://www.si-photonics.com to view more product information.

Dr. Prevatt is Vice President of S.I. Photonics, Inc., 1870 W. Prince Road, Suite 38, Tucson, AZ 85705; tel.: (520) 293-6911; fax: (520) 293-6911; e-mail: jprevatt@si-photonics.comEarn Money Online
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Tips On How To Boost Your Metabolism

The rate of metabolism during our old age is not quite the same as it was during the time of our youth. Surely you remember those days when you could eat just about anything at any time, and still weight the same ! well, those days are far behind. But no sweat, there is still hope. Not to forget that we live in an age, where we want instant solutions to every problem, and we seem to forever looking for a magic pill which will sort out all problems at once. And there are millions of such pills available which promise just that.

For ardent weight watchers, diet pills, also known as appetite suppressants had been in vogue in the 50s. During its introductory phase, these pills contained a substance called amphetamine, known to many as speed. The substance is very habit-forming and it was soon revealed that this is not a feasible option for those who wish to go on a crash plan for weight reduction.

The main focus of all diet plans, designed for weight loss should ensure a safe and healthy outcome. The so-called fast weight loss programs not always guarantee safety and good health. If one keeps this as a background, the best diet plan for weight reduction is that which offers a healthy balanced diet where calorie reduction is built-in. this plan ideally includes all the foods of the food pyramid in adequate proportions.

Doctors and researchers on the subject are focusing on how foods low on carbohydrate content can help those looking for weight reduction. The currently-available low carbohydrate foods are different from the snacks which were available before this. They tickle the taste buds, affordable and can have an instant impact on the way you look and feel.

There are many things you can do other than taking drugs, medicines, etc, if you want to pump up your metabolism. A healthy balance diet, coupled with adequate physical exercise can work wonders for you. Vitamin supplements, for instance, is a great way to keep healthy. They are safe and gives you all the energy you need. A minor change in your lifestyle can go a long way in giving that extra push to your metabolism wherein you can safely stay away from any harmful drugs or medications.

Jennifer Petersen is a staff writer at http://www.retirementplanningdigest.com and is an occasional contributor to several other websites, including http://www.careers-digest.com.Internet Marketing Experts Colorado
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Tampa Schools Take Safety Seriously

Everyone in any school system has a desire to keep kids safe. Parents, teachers, administrators, and school board members and employees work together to ensure the safety of students. Parents and schools alike rely on each other to educate their students on safety rules as appropriate to the age of the children. Tampa Schools are highly conscious of the need to keep their students safe, and have plans in place which do so. Two such plans in Tampa Schools are the Life Threatening Allergy (LTA) Responsibility Commitment, and the Jessica Lunsford Act.

The Life Threatening Allergy Commitment is in place to save childrens lives. Millions of children throughout the country suffer from life threatening allergies, and Tampa Schools are ready to deal with any situation that may arise. All members of the district of Tampa Schools have responsibilities to keep kids safe, including, but not limited to the students themselves, parents, and all Student Nutrition Services employees. The details of this plan may be reviewed at the Tampa Schools website.

Effective September 1, 2005, changes in legislation under the Jessica Lunsford Act (a law enacted after the abduction and murder of Jessica Lunsford) now require all Tampa Schools contractors, subcontractors, and their employees to undergo a Level II background screening. This screening consists of an FDLE/FBI search. If a Tampa Schools contractor or their employees or subcontractors and their employees will be at any of Tampa Schools when students are present, have direct contact with students, or have access to or control of school funds, they will be required, as mandated by Florida State Law to undergo this screening.

If the contractor or subcontractors have no personnel who meet any of the three criteria, the law does not apply and no action is necessary. The fingerprints must be kept current and are required to be updated every five years. Any break in service to Tampa Schools will require individuals to be re-screened at their cost. Outside agencies reports will not be accepted. Prior to being fingerprinted, each individual will be required to disclose any previous criminal history on the Criminal Record Information form. This document must be received and cleared by the Tampa Schools Office of Professional Standards before being fingerprinted. All individuals will be required to meet the background qualification guidelines for contractors before being considered eligible for Tampa Schools site access.

After eligibility is assessed, notification of such will be sent to the contractor, along with the clearance for his or her employee(s) to report to Fingerprinting. The potential Tampa Schools contractor will receive a document that indicates the employee has been fingerprinted and is now considered an approved contractor/employee once the district receives the fingerprint return from FDLE/FBI. This usually takes 24 to 48 hours. Additionally, contractors will be mailed ID badges for their employees that must be worn at all times while present at any Tampa Schools campus. It is obvious that the district of Tampa Schools is highly aware of the necessity of keeping its students safe.

Patricia Hawke is a staff writer for Schools K-12, providing free, in-depth reports on all U.S. public and private K-12 schools. For more information please visit http://www.schoolsk-12.com/Florida/Tampa/Web Site Promotion Internet Marketing Advertising
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Can You Get Your Own FBI NCIC Record?

We all want to know what scoop Big Brother has on us in their databases. Especially the FBI. Heres how you can get your own FBI file.

First a clarification: The FBI maintains the NCIC database. It does NOT keep a file on every American. The NCIC contains data on every person convicted of a crime, wanted persons, persons deemed dangerous to law enforcement, all drivers and more. The FBI shares this information with all law enforcement agencies. This is the database police query when they stop your car and call in your license plate and drivers license. The database does not record that you have been stopped, although in most provinces in Canada there is a system where all stops and contacts are recorded. Many local law enforcement departments have local contact database but they are not shared. So if you get stopped in your own town theres a chance there is a local record of this stop. But not on the NCIC database.

The FBI also maintains its internal databases and that information might contain data on non-convicted persons. This database is an investigative file, containing information on any person of interest to the FBI. It also contains all the internal records on FBI investigations. This file is NOT available to the public under any circumstance. One example of this is the FBI Counterterrorism database. This database contains over 659 million records from the FBI and other government sources.

An FBI Identification Record, often referred to as a Criminal History Record or Rap Sheet, is a listing of certain information taken from fingerprint submissions retained by the FBI in connection with arrests and, in some instances, federal employment, naturalization, or military service.

If you have been convicted of a crime or wanted by the police you will have a record in this file. You can get a copy of your own file by following precise instructions. These can be found here: http://www.fbibackgroundchecks.com/get-your-own-FBI-record.html. The cost is $18 payable to the FBI. The request must be made directly to the FBI. There is no need to use a company or lawyer to do this.

Can you get a FREE NCIC background check? Yes, most non-profit volunteer-based organizations might get a FBI background check performed at the local police agency.

We are all familiar with the Freedom Of Information Act (FOIA). We can get to any database, right? Not really. The government will censor what they deem confidential. I have tried to get several files using FOIA and the government will respond but slowly. And many records will have black marker streaks covering what they deemed confidential. In one case I know there was a record but the response was no record found. In a perfect world we should be able to see what is in these databases, but in todays world this is not so easy.

More information on the FBI NCIC database and background checks here:
http://www.fbibackgroundchecks.com

For information on Financial Fraud:
http://www.FinancialFraud.INFO

Ingvar Grimsmo is a writer and webmaster on a variety of current topics.
http://www.financingforsmallbusiness.com

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